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In John Green’s novel The Fault in Our Stars, the main characters, Hazel and Augustus, experience grief and loss. Teenagers don’t often talk about these feelings but will experience grief and loss at some point in their lives. Grief can be triggered from the death of a family member, friend, or person in the community.

If you have a friend who is grieving, it can be difficult to know how to help or what to say. Even if you can’t find the right words, you can show patience and support by listening, being kind and honest, and being present for your friend.

Listen First

One of the best ways to support your grieving friend is by listening.

Your friend will likely have a lot of thoughts and feelings. They may be ready to share their feelings, or they may not want to talk right away. Both reactions are normal. Let them know that you support them and are ready to listen when they are ready to share.

When your friend confides in you, do your best to listen without judgement. Remember that your friend is going through many emotions, and they may struggle to find the best words to express those emotions.

When there is a break in the conversation, you may choose to speak with kindness and support, or you may choose to stay quiet. If you want to say something, consider a kind, supportive phrase like “I’ve been thinking about you,” “What you’re going through sounds really difficult,” or “I’m here if you want to talk.”

Be Kind and Honest

When you are ready to speak, focus on being kind and saying things that are sincere, or that you really mean. You may not understand everything your friend says or the way they are choosing to grieve. That is okay. You should focus on offering meaningful words and letting them process loss in their own way.

Avoid telling your friend that they should do something. There is no correct way to grieve, and your friend should focus on what feels right to them. If you do try to offer advice and accidentally hurt their feelings, don’t ignore them. Apologize honestly and communicate that you still want to support them.

If your friend seems like they need additional help, be honest and let them know what you observed. That can be a hard conversation to have but telling them the truth because you care about them is important. Sometimes those who are grieving need more help than you are equipped to offer. A trusted adult or mental health professional can support them with extra resources.

Perform Small Acts of Kindness

If you are still at a loss for words, sometimes actions can be more meaningful. You can support your friend by doing small acts of kindness and intentionally including them in things you do every day.

At school, make a conscious effort to invite them to sit with you at lunch. Offer to walk them to class or invite them to study for a test with you. These may be things you do all the time, but by intentionally including them, you are showing kindness.

Your friend may not always want to do the things you invite them to do. That is normal and their response doesn’t mean you did something wrong. Even if they decline, continue to invite them to activities and check in on them. Send them a single text or give them a call to remind them that they are not alone.

Be Patient

Grief doesn’t have a set start time or end time. Your friend will experience, and likely show, a range of emotions. Even if they seem happy one day, it doesn’t mean their grief is “over.” It may take your friend a long time to go through a series of emotions.

Your friend will likely experience some days that feel normal and some that feel overwhelming. Some days they may be quiet, distracted, or easily upset. Some days they may be angry. Other days they may be cheerful.

Your friend may not be the same as before. It is important to support them regardless of their feelings. If your friend’s mood changes and they suddenly seem angry or sad, don’t take it personally. Mood changes are a normal part of grieving, and it is important to show patience.

Be Present

The most important part of helping a grieving friend is showing up to support them. Simply sitting with a friend can help them feel better. People most often remember who was with them during a difficult time, not what a person said or did.

An important part of being present is also checking in with your own emotions. If you are feeling sad, stressed, or angry, talk to a trusted adult or counselor. Your feelings are important too, and taking care of your emotional health is an important part of supporting a friend.

Supporting someone who is grieving is a process for both people. If you feel stuck, just remember to be your best self and be a friend every way you can.

The American Civil War showed the big differences between Northern and Southern states. As the two sides of the country clashed, the contrast between them was clear. The Union entered with more people and industry. The Confederacy had talented commanders and a strong strategic defense. The differences between the two shaped how both sides fought and thus influenced the outcome of the war.

North Advantages: Industry & Population

The Union appeared to have more advantages in the Civil War. The northern states had a larger population, a stronger industrial economy, and control of the U.S. Navy.

The North had a population of 21 million. The South only had 9 million people, including slaves. The North’s large population contributed to its industrial advantage. With more workers, the North could produce more goods in factories. The North manufactured 97% of firearms, 96% of locomotives, and 93% of pig iron—a material used to produce wartime items—in the United States.

The U.S. Navy was also under the control of the Union. Lincoln used this strategic advantage to blockade Southern ports to cut off the South’s trade routes and the Mississippi River.

South Advantages: Experience & Motivation

While the North had more material advantages, the Southern states had advantages in strategy. The South had a larger land area, more experienced military leadership, and higher morale.

The South’s military might was clear in its army. The South had a significantly smaller population but still had a substantial army of around 800,000 soldiers. The Union had more soldiers, approximately 2 million, but the South’s army was also more experienced and educated. Seven out of the eight U.S. military colleges were in the South. These colleges produced talented soldiers that fought for the Confederacy.

The terrain of the Southern states also provided advantages. The South was fighting a defensive war on their own territory. The North, in contrast, had to invade the South and fight on unfamiliar terrain.

Southern armies also had higher morale than the Northern armies. Southern soldiers were united by a cause. They were defending their values and way of life while the North was fighting to maintain the Union by abolishing slavery and ending the rebellion.

North Strategies: The Anaconda Plan & Total War

The North and South had different strategic goals and war strategies. Southern states had to remove Northern soldiers from their land to keep their independence. The North had to invade the South, pacify the population, and gain political control.

The North’s battle strategy relied on General Winfield Scott’s Anaconda Plan. This plan outlined a blockade of all Southern coasts and the Mississippi River to “strangle” the South like an anaconda snake. This plan would cut off routes the South could use to trade with or get aid from foreign nations. This plan was gradual. It was intended to weaken the South over the course of the war. The North then planned to capture the major Southern cities of Richmond, Atlanta, and Savannah.

As the war progressed, the North favored a “total war” strategy. This strategy involved launching attacks on all targets—not just military ones. The North believed that this strategy would end the war quickly. Union armies attacked economic hubs like factories and burned fields of crops. Union soldiers also invaded and occupied Confederate homes.

This total war strategy brought the war closer to civilians. Women, children, and other non-military citizens saw the violence of the war from a new perspective.

South Strategies: Overseas Assistance & Defensive War

In contrast to the North, the Southern army fought a defensive war. The South believed that if they could fortify their territory and outlast the North, they would win the war. When Northern soldiers entered Southern territory, the South attacked and drove them out.

The South also asked foreign nations for aid. The Confederacy reached out to European countries, like France and Britain, to ask for help. The South hoped to trade their main exports of cotton and tobacco for money or military support. They believed that gaining foreign allies would help bring an end to the Union’s blockades and restore the economy of the South that had been weakened by the Anaconda Plan. However, foreign nations did not offer any material support. Most European countries declared neutrality during the Civil War.

The unique strengths of both the North and the South promised a long, contentious Civil War. Americans worried about how the country would recover from the conflict.

The Great Depression was a period of American history marked by the collapse of the United States economy. During this period, the country experienced rapid factory closings and reduced food production, which resulted in hardship for many American families. Struggling families experienced structural changes as women entered the workforce to make more money and all family members contributed to money saving measures.

Women in the Workforce

Factory closings across the nation resulted in men having their wages cut or jobs eliminated. More women had to enter the workforce to make money for the family. These women took jobs that were seen as “socially unacceptable” for men. These jobs included secretary positions, telephone operators, and nurses. These jobs had stable employment during the Great Depression because they were necessary parts of American society.

Women that went to work often faced criticism from others. Many people shamed women for taking jobs from men or for leaving the household. Women were also accused of not properly caring for the home. Women, however, took many measures to save money at home.

Women’s Evolving Role at Home

Many families combated the Great Depression by cutting household costs. Because women were traditionally homemakers, they were often responsible for finding ways to save money.

Ways to save money were advertised on radio shows and in women’s magazines. Women were encouraged to save money by making cheap dishes like casseroles and one-pot meals, keeping small gardens at home, and bartering with neighbors instead of spending money at the store.

Remaining Inequalities

Women were very important for families’ survival during the Great Depression. They worked difficult jobs and made many decisions for the household. Despite their importance, they still faced many gender inequalities.

Because jobs were scarce, many believed that only one family member should hold a job. If the man of a household found a job, the woman was expected to quit hers. Women were also paid lower wages than men. According to government statistics, a woman’s average annual pay in 1937 was $525. A man’s average annual pay was $1,027.

Inequalities were worse for minority women. When white women entered the workforce, they took jobs that minority women often held. These minority women were often fired from these jobs, or they weren’t hired for jobs that white women wanted.

The Great Depression was a period of American history marked by a difficult job market. At the peak of the Great Depression, it is estimated that a quarter of Americans were unemployed. By 1932, over 12.5 million Americans were unemployed.  

Job Loss

Widespread economic hardship meant fewer people were spending money on goods and services. Businesses cut production because they were making fewer sales. Industries like construction and logging stopped operations. Whole factories, mills, and mines closed. Workers in these professions were suddenly without jobs.

Those fortunate enough to keep their jobs often had their wages dramatically cut. Many full-time workers were reduced to part-time work. In some industries, wages were cut by nearly 50%. Americans across the nation suffered from reduced incomes, whether they lost their job or not.

Difficult Job Searching

With so many production centers closing, people couldn’t easily find new jobs. Americans throughout the country had to find creative ways to make money, whether they had lost their job or suffered reduced wages.

Many people left home in hopes of finding work. Young people, often teenagers, hopped on freight trains to search for employment. This illegal practice, known as “riding the rails,” carried these roamers across the nation to look for farm work and odd jobs. Riding the rails offered some freedom, but it was also isolating. Many riders complained about how lonely this life was.

Women that had been homemakers for a long time had to find ways to make more money. They often found work in positions like secretary roles and nursing jobs. These positions were more abundant because they were seen as “women’s work.” Most men wouldn’t take these jobs. Women would also find ways to trade work for necessary household items. Many women would do odd jobs, like laundry or sewing, in exchange for supplies like flour and sugar.

Unequal Treatment of Workers

Many men had trouble finding work, but it was even harder for minority men and women to find jobs. Black men and women were often fired first if a company had to cut jobs. The Great Depression also affected Black Americans more than others. Black Americans were already relegated to lower-paid professions due to discrimination. Many jobs that they typically held were eliminated entirely or given to White job seekers.

Industrial production slowed dramatically during the Great Depression, but art thrived. Artwork offered relief from daily life in the form music, visual art, and novels. It also encouraged social change and offered hope to struggling Americans. New government programs also emerged to support artists, leading to increased creative output.

Federal Government Support

As part of the New Deal, Franklin Delano Roosevelt established a landmark program to support artists. This program, known as the Federal Art Project, was the first major government patronage of visual arts. The program employed over 5,000 out-of-work artists and commissioned them to create works for a wage of $23.50 per week. These artists created lots of new art pieces, many of which were colorful murals painted on public government buildings.

Themes of Artwork

The artwork of the Great Depression reflected the dire conditions of the country. Paintings like Dispossessed by Mervin Jules reflected the harsh reality of homelessness. Other paintings, like Tenement Flats by Millard Sheets, illustrated the poor housing conditions that many were forced to live in.

Photography was also used to artistically document hardships of the average American. Many photographers were employed by the government. These photographers were tasked with capturing the impact of the Great Depression through photos. Some captured the harrowing conditions of the Dust Bowl. Others documented struggling Americans working in harsh conditions or those migrating to find jobs.

The Writings of John Steinbeck

Many writers took pen to paper to document the stories of the Great Depression. One of these writers was struggling novelist John Steinbeck. At the time of the Great Depression, Steinbeck had written some works that saw minimal success. His first successful book was Tortilla Flat, a collection of humorous short stories.

After this success, Steinbeck began to write about the conditions of the Great Depression. In 1936 he published In Dubious Battle, a novel that chronicled the strife of abused laborers and horrible work conditions. The controversial novel generated favorable reviews.

In Dubious Battle was followed by Of Mice and Men. This novel described the conditions of the Great Depression through the story of two migrant farm workers, George and Lennie. However, Steinbeck’s greatest success came in 1939 when he published the work The Grapes of Wrath, a harrowing tale of a family’s journey from Oklahoma to California in search of work.

Ever drive along a lovely scenic highway when suddenly you’re jostled by a dip in the road?
Those are pot holes for you! No matter the scenery along the road, it only takes a single rough
bump to distract you from the pleasant ride and force you to focus on the discomfort of the drive.
Plot holes in your writing do the same thing to your reader. They snatch your consumer from the
delightful world you’ve created and suddenly shake them with a confusing addition, missing
item, or inconsistent character. Instead of enjoying the progression of the story, your writer starts
to question what they’ve read and wonder what other inconsistencies lie ahead. These mistakes
break the immersion and can frustrate readers.

The bad news? Plot holes can be easy to write if you aren’t taking careful measures to prevent
them. The good news? There are tons of simple things you can do to make sure your scenic story
isn’t interrupted by a bump in the road.

What Are Plot Holes?

Plot holes are simply an inconsistencies that call into question your story’s logic, character
development, or sequence of events. Some plot holes can be minor continuity errors, like a book
cover changing from blue in one scene to yellow in another. Others can be huge, glaring factual
errors, like setting a book about the Civil War in a time period 50 years after the conflict. Both
break the immersion by creating confusion about the items or events at work in your book.

From small mistakes to elephant errors, plot can holes include:

• Continuity errors (missing items, inconsistent descriptions, magically repaired items)
• Historical or factual impossibilities (setting an event in the wrong time period, including
  certain technology in a time period where it had yet to be invented)
• Character development flaws (a character being established as having a certain personality
  then suddenly acting out of character for seemingly no reason)
• Dead end storylines (a side character having an established goal that is developed, but never
  achieved or given up)

No matter what sorts of plot holes you struggle with, these are some methods you can use to
combat any continuity errors or flaws in logic.

Never Skip Research

When in the planning stage for your new novel, take some time to do in-depth research,
especially if your characters’ occupations or daily lives are very different from your own.

Lack of research or simple surface-level facts will quickly lead to inconsistencies. If you’ve been
a writer your whole life, but your latest main character is a nurse, dive into medical terminology
and seek out some resources on what a nurse’s day-to-day life is like. If your main character
seems incompetent at their job simply because the author doesn’t know much about that
profession, the immersion will be quickly broken.

Research is also crucial when a story is set around historical events. If your piece is set in a time
distant from our own, read up on daily life and common practices of the time. What were laws
like in that country and time period? What sorts of occupations existed?

Anachronisms, or people, events, and things set in the improper time period, will quickly poke
holes in the fabric of your setting. Think of Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar when Cassius remarks,
“The clock hath stricken three”. The clock as we know it wasn’t invented until years after
Caesar, and while Shakespeare got away with it, your novel might not be so lucky.

Anachronisms like these will hint to your writer that you didn’t do all your research and detract
from your credibility. You don’t have to become history professor to write a book set in the past,
but spend extra time in the research stage to keep plot holes from forming. Consume a few text
books on your time period and find some diaries written by people alive at the time period.
Check out a few paintings or photographs from the years your book is set in to get a better idea
of the scenery and outfits.

Compile all your research findings into a clear, organized document. When describing the scenes
in your story, check this document routinely to avoid making your main character look like a
time traveler. The stronger your setting, the harder it will be to poke holes in it.

Set the Rules of Your World in Stone

Have you ever seen a movie where a superhero suddenly gains more power than they’d ever
known before, just at the right moment? Maybe they develop a new power, or a mystical object
suddenly has a new use. Your readers will sit there going, “Wait, why didn’t they do that
before?”

Plot holes like these are why you need to set the rules of your world in stone. Your protagonists
may have the opportunity to later change those rules, but these guidelines shouldn’t shift without
a clear effort. These plot rules are especially important in a world that you custom build that may
have abnormal species, special powers, or a unique government system.

Sit down and spend time writing the hard-and-fast rules of your world. If people have
superpowers, can they develop new ones? What laws are in place in your world and what
happens if they’re broken? What are the exceptions to the rules, and how common are they?
When you have some clear-cut world laws, write them down with specific wording where you
can easily return to them.

Once you have a set of laws you love, focus on upholding them 99 percent of the time. That one
percent of the time that they’re broken, it should be for a very good reason with a clear
explanation.

Use Foreshadowing Frequently

Don’t be afraid to give your readers a taste of what’s to come by using foreshadowing in your
writing. Foreshadowing not only builds tension with hints of what to come, but offers substantial
set-up for your book that prevents people and things from appearing out of thin air.

Plot holes frequently happen when a character, event, or item presents itself with no set up,
backstory, or clear purpose. Sudden introductions surprise the reader and leave them wondering
where this thing came from and why it should appear now.

Avoid these abrupt additions by preparing the reader for a new situation. Prepare the audience for
a life-change, full-scale event by introducing a similar but brief moment of conflict beforehand.
Perhaps a divorce between the protagonist and her husband is looming. To keep the reader from
being blindsided by the break, introduce several smaller fights beforehand to set the stage.

Similar things can be done with objects. Plot holes can often occur when an object materializes
at a mysteriously convenient time. The reader questions where the object was before, and starts
to draw up all kinds of questions about why it wasn’t present earlier.

Set up this object’s use by showing it off early in the novel and clearly describing it and its
whereabouts. Maybe its a gun with incredible power that only holds one round and should only
be used in the most dire of situations. If the object is an old relic, tell a tale of its past and other
times what it was used to show when it should be used again. Setting up items with specific
purposes establishes the object’s value in your universe and prevents it from seeming like
something that dropped out of the sky.

Foreshadowing isn’t just great writing! Use this writing method as a tool to strengthen the events
of your writing and make them feel solidly grounded in the world of your book.

Plan Clear Outcomes for Subplots

Subplots are great tools for enhancing your main plot and adding depth to your world. They can
reveal details about other characters, offer insight on the setting, and contribute something
meaningful to the main storyline. If not used carefully, however, they can easily generate plot
holes.

To avoid gaps in your story, begin by planning resolutions for your subplots that have clear times
and places. Include these resolution details in your outline. Additionally, always track your subplots when you change scenes. This doesn’t mean you have give a subplot update on every page, but have an idea of what is happening while you’re focused on the main events.

For example, maybe your character has to journey out of the country for the week, and the reader
will be following them on their journey. You don’t have to continuously update the reader on
what’s happening “back home”, but when the character gets home, provide a quick summary of
what happened while away. This should include what has happened with the side characters and
their own personal events.

Keeping readers consistently updated on subplots prevents characters and events from blipping
in and out of existence and creating plot holes.